Beyond civil society: child soldiers as citizens in Mozambique

Thompson, Carol B

doi:10.1080/03056249908704378

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Review of African Political Economy

Volume 26, Issue 80

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Beyond civil society: child soldiers as citizens in Mozambique

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Author(s): Carol B. Thompson ^a

Publication date (Print): June 1999

Journal: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

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Abstract

Children are like flowers that never wither (Samora Machel).

The conditions match any of the most terrifying and depraved suffered by past generations afflicted by war. Yet the victims are not only soldiers. At the beginning of this century, 90 per cent of war casualties in Mozambique were military; today about 90 per cent are civilian. Yet even this sobering UNDP (1994) figure does not name the problem, for the term ‘civilian’ obfuscates the vulnerability and innocence of child victims. The conditions for children who are forced to bear arms erase the traditional analytical categories of military, civilian and child. An estimated 300,000 children under 18, some as young as five years old, are currently serving in 36 wars around the world right now (Brett and McCallin, 1998:19,24).

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Journal

Journal ID (publisher-id): crea20

Journal ID (archive): CREA

Title: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

ISSN (Print): 0305-6244

ISSN (Electronic): 1740-1720

Publication date (Print): June 1999

Volume: 26

Issue: 80

Pages: 191-206

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^a University of Arizona

Article

Publisher ID: 8704378 Coden ID: Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 26, No. 80, June 1999, pp. 191-206

DOI: 10.1080/03056249908704378

SO-VID: 47914205-bd5c-434f-8261-cc7084f7f270

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Figures: 0, Tables: 0, References: 68, Pages: 16

References

Abrahamsson Hans and Nilsson Anders. . 1995. . Mozambique: The Troubled Transition . , London : : Zed Books. .
Africa Information Afrique (AIA). . 24 January. 1996 . “‘Mozambique: Rituals Help Heal Child Soldiers’. ”. 24 January. ,
Ake Claude. . 1996. . Democracy and Development in Africa . , Washington , DC : : The Brookings Institute. .
Allen Chris. . 1997. . ‘Who Needs Civil Society?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 73: September;: 329––337. .
Ansa Ayisi Ruth. . 1996. . Moçambique . , Maputo : : UNICEF. .
Beckman Bjorn. . 1993. . ‘The Liberation of Civil Society — Neo liberal Ideology and Political Theory’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 20((58)): 20––34. .
Bonnerjea Lucy. . 1994. . Family Tracing . , London : : Save the Children. .
Boothby Neil. . 1991. . ‘Reuniting Unaccompanied Children and Families in Mozambique: An Effort to Link Networks of Community Volunteers to a National Programme’. . Journal of Social Development in Africa . , Vol. 8((2)): 11––22. .
Brett Rachel and McCallin Margaret. . 1998. . Children ‐The Invisible Soldiers . , Stockholm : : Radda Barnen. .
Chatterjee Partha. . 1990. . ‘A Response to Taylor's “Modes of Civil Society"’. . Public Culture . , Vol. 3((1)) Fall;: 119––32. .
1998. . “Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. ”. In Stop Using Child Soldiers! . , London : : International Save the Children Alliance. .
Draisma Frieda. . 1995. . “‘Psycho‐Social Support for Children Healing Through Play’. ”. Maputo : : Mozambique Red Cross. .
Fatton Robert. . 1995. . ‘Africa in the Age of Democratisation: the Civic Limitations of Civil Society’. . African Studies Review . , Vol. 38((2)) September;: 67––99. .
Fleming John. . 1995. . “‘Brincar Curando: Healing through Play’. ”. In Transcending the Legacy ‐Children in the New Southern Africa . , Edited by: Balch Jeff. . Amsterdam : : African‐European Institute. .
Geffray Christian. . 1991. . A Causa das Armas: Antropologia da Guerra contemporânea em Moçambique . , Porto : : Edições Afrontamento. .
Gersony Robert. . April. 1988 . “‘Summary of Mozambican Refugee Accounts of Principally Conflict‐Related Experience in Mozambique’. ”. April. , U.S. Department of State. .
Gorongosa Documents (Documentos da Gorongosa — extractos). . Captured and released by the Mozambican government after the fall of a Renamo camp in Gorongosa . , 1984.
Hanlon Joseph. . 1984. . Mozambique: The Revolution underFire . , London : : Zed Books. .
1991. . Mozambique: Who Calls the Shots? . , London : : James Currey. .
Harbeson John, Rothchild David and Chazan Naomi. , eds. 1994. . Civil Society and the State in Africa . , Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .
Harrison Graham. . ‘From the “Global” to the “Local”: Democratisation as “Inclusion” in Mozambique’. In: . paper presented to the African Studies Association conference; . San Francisco .
Hartmann Jeannette. . 1994. . “The State in Tanzania’. ”. In African Perspectives on Development . , Edited by: Himmelstrand Ulf. . London : : James Currey. .
Held David. . 1990. . “‘The Contemporary Polarisation of Democratic Theory: The Case for a Third Way’. ”. In New Developments in Political Science . , Edited by: Leftwich Adrian. . London : : Edward Elgar. .
Honwana Luis Bernardo. . ‘Politica Cultural e Identidade Cultural’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democracia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 67––73. .
Huber Evelyne, Rueschemeyer Dietrich and Stephens John D. . 1993. . ‘The Impact of Economic Development on Democracy’. . Journal of Economic Perspectives . , Vol. 7((3)) Summer;: 71––85. .
Human Rights Watch. . 1992. . Conspicuous Destruction — War, Famine and The Reform Process in Mozambique .
1994. . Easy Prey — Child Soldiers in Liberia .
1998. . “‘Prohibited Persons’ — Abuse of Undocumented Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees in South Africa. ”. New York : : Human Rights Watch. .
Hyden Goran. . 1997. . ‘Civil Society, Social Capital, and Development: Dissection of a Complex Discourse’. . Studies in Comparative International Development . , Vol. 32((1)) Spring;: 3––30. .
Jacobson Ruth. . 1996. . ‘Mozambique‐Women in the Reconciliation Process’. . African Topics . , Vol. 14: August‐October;: 18––19. .
Jeichande Ivette. . March. 1990 . “‘Mulheres deslocadas em Maputo, Zambezia e Inhambane’. ”. March. , Maputo : : UNICEF. .
Kanji Nazneen. . 1990. . ‘War and Children in Mozambique: Is International Aid strengthening or Eroding community‐based policies?’. . Community Development Journal . , Vol. 25((2)): 102––112. .
Kruks Sonya and Wisner Ben. . 1989. . “‘Ambiguous Transformations: Women, Politics, and Production in Mozambique’. ”. In Promissory Notes: Women in the Transision to Socilaism . , Edited by: Kruks Sonya. . New York : : Monthly Review Press. .
Macamo Eugenio. . 1995. . “‘War, Adjustment and Civil Society in Mozambique’. ”. In Democracy, Civil Society and the State — Social Movements in Southern Africa . , Edited by: Sachi‐konye Lloyd. . Harare : : Sapes Books. .
Machel Graça. . 1996. . “‘Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’. ”.
Magaia Lina. . 1988. . Dumba Nengue — Run for Your Life . , Trenton , NJ : : Africa World Press. .
Mamdani Mahmood. . 1995. . “‘A Critique of the State and Civil Society Paradigm in Africanist Studies’. ”. In African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy . , Edited by: Mamdami M. and Wamba‐dia‐Wamba E.. Dakar : : Codesria. .
Marcussen Henrik Secher. . 1996. . ‘NGOs, the State and Civil Society’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 23((69)) September;: 405––423. .
McIntyre Teresa Medonca and Ventura Margarida. . 1998. . ‘Angolan PTSD Study Re‐Focuses on Adolescent Development’. . Psychology International . , Vol. 9((2)) Spring;: 15
Minter William. . 1994. . Apartheid's Contras ‐An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique . , Johannesburg : : Witwatersrand Press. .
Moçambique, Governo de, Ministério do Plano e Finanças, Direcção nacional de Estatistica. . May. 1995 . Anuário Estatistico . May. , Maputo :
Mozambique News Agency (AIM). . 1996 ∓1998. . Mozambiquefile . , (various issues).
Mucache Eunice, Draisma Freida and Bilale Cecilia. . 1995. . “‘Ways of Helping Children Affected by Violence and War — The Experience of Mozambique’. ”. Maputo : : Mozambique Red Cross Society. .
Muianga Elisa. . 1995. . ‘Mulheres e Guerra: Reintegração social das Mulheres Regressadas das ‘Zonas da Renamo’ no Distrito de Mand‐lakazi’. . Arquivo . , : 47––92. .
Muianga Lucena. . 1995. . “‘Rehabilitation and Empowerment of Children in Difficult Circumstances: The Experience in Mozambique’. ”. In Transcending the Legacy ‐Children in the New Southern Africa . , Edited by: Balch Jeff. . Amsterdam : : African‐European Institute. .
Ndegwa S. . 1996. . The Two Faces of Civil Society: NGOs and Politics in Africa . , West Hartford : : Kumarian Press. .
Nilsson Anders. . 1990. . Unmasking the Bandits — European Involvement with Apartheid's Tool of Terror . , London : : ECASAAMA. .
Nordstrom Carolyn. . 1997. . A Different Kind of War Story . , Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .
Osaghase Eghosa. . 1994. . “‘Between State and Civil Society’. ”. In Africa‐Prospects on Development . , Dakar : : Codesria. .
Pitcher M. Anne. . 1996. . “Chiefs, Companies and Cotton: Observations from Nampula’. . Southern Africa Report . , November;: 26––30. .
Robertson Gavin and Kiewit Steven de. . 1998. . ‘Wilderness Therapy with Militarized Youth in Traumatised Communities’. . Journal of Social Development in Africa . , Vol. 13((1)): 53––58. .
Roesch Otto. . 1992. . ‘Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition”. . Southern Africa Report . , May;: 27––30. .
1995. . “Save the Children Federation. ”. In Children and War — The Mozambique Experience . , Maputo : : Save the Children Fund. .
Sheldon Kathleen. . 1994. . “‘Women and Revolution in Mozambique: A Luta Continua’. ”. In Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia and the New World, . , Edited by: Tetreault Mary Ann. . Columbia , SC : : University of South Carolina Press. .
Shin Doh Chull. . 1994. . ‘On the Third Wave of Democratization’, Review Article. . World Politics . , Vol. 47: October;: 135––170. .
da Silva Terezinha. . 1995. . “‘Disaster Preparedness in Mozambique: Family Tracing and Reunification Project’. ”. In Children Separated by War . , London : : Save the Children. .
Sogge David. . 1997. . “The Civil Sector’. ”. In Mozambique — Perspectives on Aid and the Civil Sector . , Edited by: Sogge David. . Oegstgeest : : Gemeen‐sohappelijk Overlag Medefinanciering (GOM). .
Sulemani David Aloni. . ‘Experiénçia Democrática na Tradiçao Africana’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democraçia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 55––63. .
Taimo Jamisse. . ‘Cultura de Paz e Democracia em Mozambique’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democracia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 145––52. .
Tripp Aili Mari. . 1994. . “‘Rethinking Civil Society: Gender Implications in Contemporary Tanzania’. ”. In Civil Society and the State in Africa . , Edited by: Harbeson John. . Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). . 1994. . Human Development Report . , New York : : UNDP. .
28 May. 1996 . “‘Preliminary Results of the Quantitative Analysis of Data obtained during Interviews with 1000 Demobilized Soldiers’. ”. 28 May. , Maputo : : UNDP. .
UNICEF. . 1994. . An Assessment of Children and Youth in Renamo Zones: Strategies and Recommendations‐ Final Report . , Maputo : : UNICEF. .
United Nations. . 1995. . The United Nations and Mozambique, 1992–1995 . , New York : : United Nations. .
Vines Alex. . 1991. . Renamo — Terrorism in Mozambique . , Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .
Wilson Kenneth. . 1992a. . Internally Displaced, Refugees, and Returnees from and in Mozambique . , Oxford : : University of Oxford Press. .
1992b. . ‘Cults of Violence and Counter Violence in Mozambique’. . Journal of Southern African Studies . , Vol. 18((3)): 527––582. .
World Bank. . 1994. . Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank . , Washington , DC : : World Bank. .

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Abrahamsson Hans and Nilsson Anders. . 1995. . Mozambique: The Troubled Transition . , London : : Zed Books. .

[2] Africa Information Afrique (AIA). . 24 January. 1996 . “‘Mozambique: Rituals Help Heal Child Soldiers’. ”. 24 January. ,

[3] Ake Claude. . 1996. . Democracy and Development in Africa . , Washington , DC : : The Brookings Institute. .

[4] Allen Chris. . 1997. . ‘Who Needs Civil Society?’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 73: September;: 329––337. .

[5] Ansa Ayisi Ruth. . 1996. . Moçambique . , Maputo : : UNICEF. .

[6] Beckman Bjorn. . 1993. . ‘The Liberation of Civil Society — Neo liberal Ideology and Political Theory’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 20((58)): 20––34. .

[7] Bonnerjea Lucy. . 1994. . Family Tracing . , London : : Save the Children. .

[8] Boothby Neil. . 1991. . ‘Reuniting Unaccompanied Children and Families in Mozambique: An Effort to Link Networks of Community Volunteers to a National Programme’. . Journal of Social Development in Africa . , Vol. 8((2)): 11––22. .

[9] Brett Rachel and McCallin Margaret. . 1998. . Children ‐The Invisible Soldiers . , Stockholm : : Radda Barnen. .

[10] Chatterjee Partha. . 1990. . ‘A Response to Taylor's “Modes of Civil Society"’. . Public Culture . , Vol. 3((1)) Fall;: 119––32. .

[11] 1998. . “Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers. ”. In Stop Using Child Soldiers! . , London : : International Save the Children Alliance. .

[12] Draisma Frieda. . 1995. . “‘Psycho‐Social Support for Children Healing Through Play’. ”. Maputo : : Mozambique Red Cross. .

[13] Fatton Robert. . 1995. . ‘Africa in the Age of Democratisation: the Civic Limitations of Civil Society’. . African Studies Review . , Vol. 38((2)) September;: 67––99. .

[14] Fleming John. . 1995. . “‘Brincar Curando: Healing through Play’. ”. In Transcending the Legacy ‐Children in the New Southern Africa . , Edited by: Balch Jeff. . Amsterdam : : African‐European Institute. .

[15] Geffray Christian. . 1991. . A Causa das Armas: Antropologia da Guerra contemporânea em Moçambique . , Porto : : Edições Afrontamento. .

[16] Gersony Robert. . April. 1988 . “‘Summary of Mozambican Refugee Accounts of Principally Conflict‐Related Experience in Mozambique’. ”. April. , U.S. Department of State. .

[17] Gorongosa Documents (Documentos da Gorongosa — extractos). . Captured and released by the Mozambican government after the fall of a Renamo camp in Gorongosa . , 1984.

[18] Hanlon Joseph. . 1984. . Mozambique: The Revolution underFire . , London : : Zed Books. .

[19] 1991. . Mozambique: Who Calls the Shots? . , London : : James Currey. .

[20] Harbeson John, Rothchild David and Chazan Naomi. , eds. 1994. . Civil Society and the State in Africa . , Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .

[21] Harrison Graham. . ‘From the “Global” to the “Local”: Democratisation as “Inclusion” in Mozambique’. In: . paper presented to the African Studies Association conference; . San Francisco .

[22] Hartmann Jeannette. . 1994. . “The State in Tanzania’. ”. In African Perspectives on Development . , Edited by: Himmelstrand Ulf. . London : : James Currey. .

[23] Held David. . 1990. . “‘The Contemporary Polarisation of Democratic Theory: The Case for a Third Way’. ”. In New Developments in Political Science . , Edited by: Leftwich Adrian. . London : : Edward Elgar. .

[24] Honwana Luis Bernardo. . ‘Politica Cultural e Identidade Cultural’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democracia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 67––73. .

[25] Huber Evelyne, Rueschemeyer Dietrich and Stephens John D. . 1993. . ‘The Impact of Economic Development on Democracy’. . Journal of Economic Perspectives . , Vol. 7((3)) Summer;: 71––85. .

[26] Human Rights Watch. . 1992. . Conspicuous Destruction — War, Famine and The Reform Process in Mozambique .

[27] 1994. . Easy Prey — Child Soldiers in Liberia .

[28] 1998. . “‘Prohibited Persons’ — Abuse of Undocumented Migrants, Asylum Seekers and Refugees in South Africa. ”. New York : : Human Rights Watch. .

[29] Hyden Goran. . 1997. . ‘Civil Society, Social Capital, and Development: Dissection of a Complex Discourse’. . Studies in Comparative International Development . , Vol. 32((1)) Spring;: 3––30. .

[30] Jacobson Ruth. . 1996. . ‘Mozambique‐Women in the Reconciliation Process’. . African Topics . , Vol. 14: August‐October;: 18––19. .

[31] Jeichande Ivette. . March. 1990 . “‘Mulheres deslocadas em Maputo, Zambezia e Inhambane’. ”. March. , Maputo : : UNICEF. .

[32] Kanji Nazneen. . 1990. . ‘War and Children in Mozambique: Is International Aid strengthening or Eroding community‐based policies?’. . Community Development Journal . , Vol. 25((2)): 102––112. .

[33] Kruks Sonya and Wisner Ben. . 1989. . “‘Ambiguous Transformations: Women, Politics, and Production in Mozambique’. ”. In Promissory Notes: Women in the Transision to Socilaism . , Edited by: Kruks Sonya. . New York : : Monthly Review Press. .

[34] Macamo Eugenio. . 1995. . “‘War, Adjustment and Civil Society in Mozambique’. ”. In Democracy, Civil Society and the State — Social Movements in Southern Africa . , Edited by: Sachi‐konye Lloyd. . Harare : : Sapes Books. .

[35] Machel Graça. . 1996. . “‘Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’. ”.

[36] Magaia Lina. . 1988. . Dumba Nengue — Run for Your Life . , Trenton , NJ : : Africa World Press. .

[37] Mamdani Mahmood. . 1995. . “‘A Critique of the State and Civil Society Paradigm in Africanist Studies’. ”. In African Studies in Social Movements and Democracy . , Edited by: Mamdami M. and Wamba‐dia‐Wamba E.. Dakar : : Codesria. .

[38] Marcussen Henrik Secher. . 1996. . ‘NGOs, the State and Civil Society’. . Review of African Political Economy . , Vol. 23((69)) September;: 405––423. .

[39] McIntyre Teresa Medonca and Ventura Margarida. . 1998. . ‘Angolan PTSD Study Re‐Focuses on Adolescent Development’. . Psychology International . , Vol. 9((2)) Spring;: 15

[40] Minter William. . 1994. . Apartheid's Contras ‐An Inquiry into the Roots of War in Angola and Mozambique . , Johannesburg : : Witwatersrand Press. .

[41] Moçambique, Governo de, Ministério do Plano e Finanças, Direcção nacional de Estatistica. . May. 1995 . Anuário Estatistico . May. , Maputo :

[42] Mozambique News Agency (AIM). . 1996 ∓1998. . Mozambiquefile . , (various issues).

[43] Mucache Eunice, Draisma Freida and Bilale Cecilia. . 1995. . “‘Ways of Helping Children Affected by Violence and War — The Experience of Mozambique’. ”. Maputo : : Mozambique Red Cross Society. .

[44] Muianga Elisa. . 1995. . ‘Mulheres e Guerra: Reintegração social das Mulheres Regressadas das ‘Zonas da Renamo’ no Distrito de Mand‐lakazi’. . Arquivo . , : 47––92. .

[45] Muianga Lucena. . 1995. . “‘Rehabilitation and Empowerment of Children in Difficult Circumstances: The Experience in Mozambique’. ”. In Transcending the Legacy ‐Children in the New Southern Africa . , Edited by: Balch Jeff. . Amsterdam : : African‐European Institute. .

[46] Ndegwa S. . 1996. . The Two Faces of Civil Society: NGOs and Politics in Africa . , West Hartford : : Kumarian Press. .

[47] Nilsson Anders. . 1990. . Unmasking the Bandits — European Involvement with Apartheid's Tool of Terror . , London : : ECASAAMA. .

[48] Nordstrom Carolyn. . 1997. . A Different Kind of War Story . , Philadelphia : : University of Pennsylvania Press. .

[49] Osaghase Eghosa. . 1994. . “‘Between State and Civil Society’. ”. In Africa‐Prospects on Development . , Dakar : : Codesria. .

[50] Pitcher M. Anne. . 1996. . “Chiefs, Companies and Cotton: Observations from Nampula’. . Southern Africa Report . , November;: 26––30. .

[51] Robertson Gavin and Kiewit Steven de. . 1998. . ‘Wilderness Therapy with Militarized Youth in Traumatised Communities’. . Journal of Social Development in Africa . , Vol. 13((1)): 53––58. .

[52] Roesch Otto. . 1992. . ‘Mozambique Unravels? The Retreat to Tradition”. . Southern Africa Report . , May;: 27––30. .

[53] 1995. . “Save the Children Federation. ”. In Children and War — The Mozambique Experience . , Maputo : : Save the Children Fund. .

[54] Sheldon Kathleen. . 1994. . “‘Women and Revolution in Mozambique: A Luta Continua’. ”. In Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia and the New World, . , Edited by: Tetreault Mary Ann. . Columbia , SC : : University of South Carolina Press. .

[55] Shin Doh Chull. . 1994. . ‘On the Third Wave of Democratization’, Review Article. . World Politics . , Vol. 47: October;: 135––170. .

[56] da Silva Terezinha. . 1995. . “‘Disaster Preparedness in Mozambique: Family Tracing and Reunification Project’. ”. In Children Separated by War . , London : : Save the Children. .

[57] Sogge David. . 1997. . “The Civil Sector’. ”. In Mozambique — Perspectives on Aid and the Civil Sector . , Edited by: Sogge David. . Oegstgeest : : Gemeen‐sohappelijk Overlag Medefinanciering (GOM). .

[58] Sulemani David Aloni. . ‘Experiénçia Democrática na Tradiçao Africana’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democraçia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 55––63. .

[59] Taimo Jamisse. . ‘Cultura de Paz e Democracia em Mozambique’. In: . Cultura de Paz e Democracia, UNESCO Conference papers; . May. 1994 ; . pp.p. 145––52. .

[60] Tripp Aili Mari. . 1994. . “‘Rethinking Civil Society: Gender Implications in Contemporary Tanzania’. ”. In Civil Society and the State in Africa . , Edited by: Harbeson John. . Boulder : : Lynne Rienner. .

[61] United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). . 1994. . Human Development Report . , New York : : UNDP. .

[62] 28 May. 1996 . “‘Preliminary Results of the Quantitative Analysis of Data obtained during Interviews with 1000 Demobilized Soldiers’. ”. 28 May. , Maputo : : UNDP. .

[63] UNICEF. . 1994. . An Assessment of Children and Youth in Renamo Zones: Strategies and Recommendations‐ Final Report . , Maputo : : UNICEF. .

[64] United Nations. . 1995. . The United Nations and Mozambique, 1992–1995 . , New York : : United Nations. .

[65] Vines Alex. . 1991. . Renamo — Terrorism in Mozambique . , Bloomington : : Indiana University Press. .

[66] Wilson Kenneth. . 1992a. . Internally Displaced, Refugees, and Returnees from and in Mozambique . , Oxford : : University of Oxford Press. .

[67] 1992b. . ‘Cults of Violence and Counter Violence in Mozambique’. . Journal of Southern African Studies . , Vol. 18((3)): 527––582. .

[68] World Bank. . 1994. . Population and Development: Implications for the World Bank . , Washington , DC : : World Bank. .

Review of African Political Economy

Beyond civil society: child soldiers as citizens in Mozambique

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