From Africa to Cuba: an historical analysis of the <i>sociedad secreta Abakuá (Ñañiguismo</i>)

Ishemo, Shubi L.

doi:10.1080/03056240208704612

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Review of African Political Economy

Volume 29, Issue 92

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From Africa to Cuba: an historical analysis of the sociedad secreta Abakuá (Ñañiguismo)

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Author(s): Shubi L Ishemo ^a

Publication date (Print): June 2002

Journal: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

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Abstract

The historical relations between Africa and Cuba run deep. Cuba significantly contributed to the African national liberation struggle and Africa contributed towards the development of Cuban identity and culture. This article is concerned with the latter aspect. African elements in the development of Cuban culture have historically been manifested in the development of Cuban religions, in particular the Congolese and Bantu derived Regla Conga ( Palo Monte), the Yoruba derived Regla Ocha ( Santeria) , the Benin derived Regla Arara and Vodoo, and the Sociedad Secreta Abakua whose origins are Old Calabar and southwestern Cameroon. These religions were syncretised with Christian symbols to produce Cuban national identity. I will dwell on the Sociedad Secreta Abakua which has historically consisted of male only mutual associations. The society is the only one of its kind in the Americas and is located in the cities of Havana, Matanzas, and Cardenas.

I will examine the historiography on the origins of the society and offer a political economy approach which dwells on the development of the social formation of the societies of Old Calabar and the emergence of the male only Ekpe and Ngbe or Leopard Societies whose functions were those of a state apparatus which provided religious and ideological legitimacy for an emerging merchant class in the eighteenth and the second half of the nineteenth centuries. Membership of the Ekpe and Ngbe was not only restricted to the dominant lineages but also included freemen and slaves. Most of the historiography consider the two secret societies as the origin of the Sociedad Secreta Abakua. It will be suggested that its origins may also lie in the Nka lyip (Association of Blood Men) whose membership was mainly slaves in Old Calabar. The origins of the Blood Men may have been much earlier, possibly in the eighteenth century. The Abakua Secret Society may also have emerged much earlier than 1836 and possibly in the late eighteenth century.

The next level will dwell on its development as a contested Cuban institution based in the port cities of Havana, Matanzas and Cardenas. Based in poor neighbourhoods, its members became a source of labour on the wharves, in warehouses for over 100 years. Its membership underwent transformation from black only to mixed white and black and later Chinese ex‐indentured labour. It became transculturised, drawing its religious pantheons and rituals from Old Calabar, Yoruba and Bantu elements, as well as Roman Catholic symbols. In the colonial and neo‐colonial periods the Abakua were demonised and persecuted. Through the contract system of labour, its members were manipulated and exploited by unscrupulous intermediaries. Some of these intermediaries held leadership positions or plazas in its ranks. But its secret character was politically positive as its fearless, valiant male members actively participated in the struggles against slavery, against Spanish colonialism, labour unions, and the defeat of United States aggression against the young Cuban revolution in 1961.

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Journal

Journal ID (publisher-id): crea20

Journal ID (archive): CREA

Title: Review of African Political Economy

Publisher: Review of African Political Economy

ISSN (Print): 0305-6244

ISSN (Electronic): 1740-1720

Publication date (Print): June 2002

Volume: 29

Issue: 92

Pages: 253-272

Affiliations

^a Trinity and All Saints , University of Leeds , UK E-mail: S_ishemo@ 123456tasc.ac.uk

Article

Publisher ID: 8704612 Coden ID: Review of African Political Economy, Vol. 29, No. 92, June 2002, pp. 253-272

DOI: 10.1080/03056240208704612

SO-VID: 8103e1e3-8f04-48d8-92cb-f510c2eed4ae

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All content is freely available without charge to users or their institutions. Users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles in this journal without asking prior permission of the publisher or the author. Articles published in the journal are distributed under a http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

History

Page count

Figures: 0, Tables: 0, References: 59, Pages: 20

References

Akak Eyo Okon. . 1981. . A Critique of Old Calabar History . , Calabar : : Ikot Affiong Welfare Association. .
Almeida Juan Bosque. . 2001. . ‘Acerca dos santeiros ou os ñañigos em um dia de carnaval no Paseo del Prado’. . Granma Internacional . , 4 July;
Gutiérez Balbuena. . 1996. . El Ireme Abakuá . , Havana : : Editorial Pueblo y Educación. .
Barcia Zequeira and Carmen María del. . ‘Hacia una caracterización de la sociedad esclavista de Cuba 1760–1880’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de Africa en America; . Edited by: Jimenez A Núñez. . pp.p. 47––58. . Havana : : Comision Cubana Conmemorativa del Encuentro de las Culturas del Viejo Mundos. .
Bergad L W, García Fe Iglesias and Barcia María del Carmen. . 1995. . The Cuban Slave Market 1790–1880 . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .
Bolivar Natalia. . 1997. . El legado africano en Cuba’. . Revista de Sociologia . , : 155––166. .
Butt‐Thompson F W. . 1929. . West African Secret Societies: Their Organisations, Officials and Teachings . , London : : H.F. & G. Witherby. .
Cabral Amilcar. . 1973. . Return to the source . , New York : : African Information Service. .
Cabrera Lydia. . 1958. . La Sociedad Secreta Abakua . , Havana : : Ediciones CR. .
1996. . El Monte . , Havana : : Editorial SI‐MAR S.A.. .
2000. . ‘Ritual y símbolos de la iniciación en la Sociedad Secreta Abakuá. . Catauro Revista Cubana de Antropología . , : 130––164. .
1969. . Journal de la Societé des Americanistes . , Vol. LVIII((58))
Cañizares Dulcila. . 2002. . ‘El Chulo más famoso de La Habana’. . La Jiribilla . , 2 March;
Castro Fernández Silvio. . 2002. . ‘La Massacres de Los Independientes de Color (La Guerra de 1912 en Cuba)’,. . La Jiribilla . , February;
Chesneaux Jean. . 1971. . Secret Societies in China in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . , London : : Heinemann. .
Curtin P D. . 1969. . The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census . , Madison : : University of Wisconsin Press. .
Davidson Basil. . 1961. . Black Mother . , London : : Victor Gollancz. .
Deschamps Pedro Chapeaux. . 1970. . El negro en la económia habanera del siglo XIX . , Havana : : UNEAC. .
Dike K O. . 1956. . Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830–1885 . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .
Fernández Núñez José Manuel. . 2001. . La Habana, Crisol de Culturas y Credos . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
Fernández Robaina Tomás. . 1994. . Hablen Palerosy Santeros . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
Forde Daryll Cyril. . 1956. . Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
Franco José Luciano. . 1963. . La conspiración de Aponte . , Havana : : Publicaciones del Archivo Nacional LVIII. .
García Álvarez Alejandro. . 1990. . La burguesia commercial en Cuba 1899–1920 . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
Helg Aline. . {1995. . Our Rightful Share: The Afro‐Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912 . , Chapel Hill/London : : University of North Carolina Press. .
Hevia Lanier Oílda. . 1997. . ‘Otra contribuicion a la historia de los negros sin historia’. . Debates Americanos . , Vol. 4:
Hobsbawm Eric. . 1978. . Primitive Rebels . , Manchester : : Manchester University Press. .
Howard Philip. . 1998. . Changing History: Afro‐Cuban Cabildos and Societies of Color in the Nineteenth Century . , Baton Rouge : : Louisiana State University Press. .
James Joel Figuerola. . 1988. . En las raices del Arbol . , Santiago de Cuba : : Editorial Oriente. .
Jones G I. . 1956. . “‘The Political Organisation of Old Calabar’. ”. In Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Edited by: Forde Daryll. . p. 116––160. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
Latham A J H. . 1973. . Old Calabar 1600–1890: The Impact of the International Economy Upon a Traditional Society . , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
Leal Rine. . 1975. . La Selva Oscura . , Havana : : Editorial Arte y Literatura. .
López Pujol Amparo. . ‘Las Religiones Afrocubanas como resultado de la reafirmación del negro esclavo en Cuba’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de África en Cuba; . Edited by: Jiménez Antonio Núñez. . pp.p. 104––113. . Havana : : Comisión Conmemorativa del Encuentro de las Culturas del Viejo y del Nuevo Mundos. .
López Valdés Rafael. . 1998. . “‘La Sociedad Secreta ‘Abakuá’ en un grupo de obreros portuarios’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos . Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 89––127. .
Matibag Eugenio. . 1996. . Afro‐Cuban religious experience: cultural reflections in narrative . , Gainsville : : University Press of Florida. .
Miller Ivor. . 2000. . ‘A Secret Society Goes Public; The relationship Between Abakua and Cuban Popular Culture’. . African Studies Review . , Vol. 43((1)): 161––188. .
Moliner Israel. . 1998. . “‘Los cultos zoolátricos’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos I . Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 381––402. .
Moore Robin. . 1997. . Nationalizing Blackness, Afrocubanismo and A rtistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940 . , Pittsburgh : : University of Pittsburgh Press. .
Moreno Fraginals Manuel. . 1978. . El Ingenio: complejo económico social cubano del azúcar . , Vol. Vol. I. , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
1985. . “Africa in Latin America. ”. In Essays on History, Culture and Socialization . , Paris : : Unesco. .
Muzio María del Carmen. . 2001. . Andrés Quimbisa . , Havana : : Ediciones Union. .
Neira Betancourt Lino Arturo. . 1991. . Como Suena Un Tambor Abakuá . , Havana : : Editorial Pueblo y Educación. .
Núñez Jiménez Antonio. . ‘Cuba: los esclavos en los anuncios clasificados’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de Africa en América; . Edited by: Jiménez A. Núñez. . pp.p. 9––32. .
Okon Ekpenyong E. . 1988. . ‘The Association of Blood men (in Old Calabar): A Reinterpretation’. . Africana Marburgensia . , Vol. XXI((2)): 51––62. .
Onyile Onyile Bassey. . 2000. . ‘Abang dance: radiance from the River and Efik Ideal of Femininity’. . Ijele: Art e Journal of the African World . , Vol. 1((1)) March;
Oquendo Leyda. . 1988. . “‘Las Rebeldias de los esclavos en Cuba, 1790–1830’. ”. In Temas acerca de la esclavitud . , Edited by: Departamento de Historia de Cuba de la Academia de Ciencias. . p. 49––70. . Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
Ortiz Fernando. . 1981. . Los Bailes y el Teatro de los Negros en el Folklore de Cuba . , Havana : : Editorial Letras Cubanas. .
1993. . Etniay Sociedad . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
1991. . Contra‐puento cubano del tobacco y el azúcar . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .
1992. . Los cabildos y la fiesta afrocubanos del Día de Reyes . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciendas Sociales. .
Pedro Díaz Alberto. . 1998. . “‘Para iniciarse en la sodedad ‘Abakua’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos . , Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 129––139. . Fundacion Fernando Ortiz. .
Péiez de la Riva Juan. . 2000. . ‘El culí en el medio económico y social cubano’. . Catauro. Revista CubanadeAntropología . , : 74––102. .
Pérez Roque Felipe. . 2002. . ‘Discurso pro‐nunciado por Felipe Pérez Roque, Ministro de la Relaciones Exteriores de Cuba, en la tribuna Abierta de la Revolución, en la Plaza de África en Alamar, el 6 de abril de 2002. . Granma . , 8 April, 2002;
Quiñones Tato. . 1994. . Ecorie Abakuá . , Havana : : Ediciones Unión. .
Simmons D. . 1956. . “‘An Ethnographic Sketch of the Efik People’. ”. In Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Edited by: Forde Daryll. . p. 1––26. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
Sosa Rodríguez Enrique. . 1982. . Los Ñañigos . , Havana : : Ediciones Casa de las Américas. .
2001. . ‘Ñañigos en Key West (18807–1923?)’. . La Jiribilla . , July;
Talbot P Amaury. . 1926. . Peoples of Southern Nigeria . , Vol. Vols. 1 and 3. , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .
1967. . Life in Southern Nigeria: The Magic, Beliefs and Customs of the Ibibio Tribe . , London : : Frank Cass. .

Comments

Comment on this article

[1] Akak Eyo Okon. . 1981. . A Critique of Old Calabar History . , Calabar : : Ikot Affiong Welfare Association. .

[2] Almeida Juan Bosque. . 2001. . ‘Acerca dos santeiros ou os ñañigos em um dia de carnaval no Paseo del Prado’. . Granma Internacional . , 4 July;

[3] Gutiérez Balbuena. . 1996. . El Ireme Abakuá . , Havana : : Editorial Pueblo y Educación. .

[4] Barcia Zequeira and Carmen María del. . ‘Hacia una caracterización de la sociedad esclavista de Cuba 1760–1880’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de Africa en America; . Edited by: Jimenez A Núñez. . pp.p. 47––58. . Havana : : Comision Cubana Conmemorativa del Encuentro de las Culturas del Viejo Mundos. .

[5] Bergad L W, García Fe Iglesias and Barcia María del Carmen. . 1995. . The Cuban Slave Market 1790–1880 . , Cambridge : : Cambridge University Press. .

[6] Bolivar Natalia. . 1997. . El legado africano en Cuba’. . Revista de Sociologia . , : 155––166. .

[7] Butt‐Thompson F W. . 1929. . West African Secret Societies: Their Organisations, Officials and Teachings . , London : : H.F. & G. Witherby. .

[8] Cabral Amilcar. . 1973. . Return to the source . , New York : : African Information Service. .

[9] Cabrera Lydia. . 1958. . La Sociedad Secreta Abakua . , Havana : : Ediciones CR. .

[10] 1996. . El Monte . , Havana : : Editorial SI‐MAR S.A.. .

[11] 2000. . ‘Ritual y símbolos de la iniciación en la Sociedad Secreta Abakuá. . Catauro Revista Cubana de Antropología . , : 130––164. .

[12] 1969. . Journal de la Societé des Americanistes . , Vol. LVIII((58))

[13] Cañizares Dulcila. . 2002. . ‘El Chulo más famoso de La Habana’. . La Jiribilla . , 2 March;

[14] Castro Fernández Silvio. . 2002. . ‘La Massacres de Los Independientes de Color (La Guerra de 1912 en Cuba)’,. . La Jiribilla . , February;

[15] Chesneaux Jean. . 1971. . Secret Societies in China in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries . , London : : Heinemann. .

[16] Curtin P D. . 1969. . The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census . , Madison : : University of Wisconsin Press. .

[17] Davidson Basil. . 1961. . Black Mother . , London : : Victor Gollancz. .

[18] Deschamps Pedro Chapeaux. . 1970. . El negro en la económia habanera del siglo XIX . , Havana : : UNEAC. .

[19] Dike K O. . 1956. . Trade and Politics in the Niger Delta 1830–1885 . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. .

[20] Fernández Núñez José Manuel. . 2001. . La Habana, Crisol de Culturas y Credos . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[21] Fernández Robaina Tomás. . 1994. . Hablen Palerosy Santeros . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[22] Forde Daryll Cyril. . 1956. . Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[23] Franco José Luciano. . 1963. . La conspiración de Aponte . , Havana : : Publicaciones del Archivo Nacional LVIII. .

[24] García Álvarez Alejandro. . 1990. . La burguesia commercial en Cuba 1899–1920 . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[25] Helg Aline. . {1995. . Our Rightful Share: The Afro‐Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912 . , Chapel Hill/London : : University of North Carolina Press. .

[26] Hevia Lanier Oílda. . 1997. . ‘Otra contribuicion a la historia de los negros sin historia’. . Debates Americanos . , Vol. 4:

[27] Hobsbawm Eric. . 1978. . Primitive Rebels . , Manchester : : Manchester University Press. .

[28] Howard Philip. . 1998. . Changing History: Afro‐Cuban Cabildos and Societies of Color in the Nineteenth Century . , Baton Rouge : : Louisiana State University Press. .

[29] James Joel Figuerola. . 1988. . En las raices del Arbol . , Santiago de Cuba : : Editorial Oriente. .

[30] Jones G I. . 1956. . “‘The Political Organisation of Old Calabar’. ”. In Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Edited by: Forde Daryll. . p. 116––160. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[31] Latham A J H. . 1973. . Old Calabar 1600–1890: The Impact of the International Economy Upon a Traditional Society . , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[32] Leal Rine. . 1975. . La Selva Oscura . , Havana : : Editorial Arte y Literatura. .

[33] López Pujol Amparo. . ‘Las Religiones Afrocubanas como resultado de la reafirmación del negro esclavo en Cuba’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de África en Cuba; . Edited by: Jiménez Antonio Núñez. . pp.p. 104––113. . Havana : : Comisión Conmemorativa del Encuentro de las Culturas del Viejo y del Nuevo Mundos. .

[34] López Valdés Rafael. . 1998. . “‘La Sociedad Secreta ‘Abakuá’ en un grupo de obreros portuarios’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos . Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 89––127. .

[35] Matibag Eugenio. . 1996. . Afro‐Cuban religious experience: cultural reflections in narrative . , Gainsville : : University Press of Florida. .

[36] Miller Ivor. . 2000. . ‘A Secret Society Goes Public; The relationship Between Abakua and Cuban Popular Culture’. . African Studies Review . , Vol. 43((1)): 161––188. .

[37] Moliner Israel. . 1998. . “‘Los cultos zoolátricos’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos I . Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 381––402. .

[38] Moore Robin. . 1997. . Nationalizing Blackness, Afrocubanismo and A rtistic Revolution in Havana, 1920–1940 . , Pittsburgh : : University of Pittsburgh Press. .

[39] Moreno Fraginals Manuel. . 1978. . El Ingenio: complejo económico social cubano del azúcar . , Vol. Vol. I. , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[40] 1985. . “Africa in Latin America. ”. In Essays on History, Culture and Socialization . , Paris : : Unesco. .

[41] Muzio María del Carmen. . 2001. . Andrés Quimbisa . , Havana : : Ediciones Union. .

[42] Neira Betancourt Lino Arturo. . 1991. . Como Suena Un Tambor Abakuá . , Havana : : Editorial Pueblo y Educación. .

[43] Núñez Jiménez Antonio. . ‘Cuba: los esclavos en los anuncios clasificados’. In: . Conferencia Internacional Presencia de Africa en América; . Edited by: Jiménez A. Núñez. . pp.p. 9––32. .

[44] Okon Ekpenyong E. . 1988. . ‘The Association of Blood men (in Old Calabar): A Reinterpretation’. . Africana Marburgensia . , Vol. XXI((2)): 51––62. .

[45] Onyile Onyile Bassey. . 2000. . ‘Abang dance: radiance from the River and Efik Ideal of Femininity’. . Ijele: Art e Journal of the African World . , Vol. 1((1)) March;

[46] Oquendo Leyda. . 1988. . “‘Las Rebeldias de los esclavos en Cuba, 1790–1830’. ”. In Temas acerca de la esclavitud . , Edited by: Departamento de Historia de Cuba de la Academia de Ciencias. . p. 49––70. . Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[47] Ortiz Fernando. . 1981. . Los Bailes y el Teatro de los Negros en el Folklore de Cuba . , Havana : : Editorial Letras Cubanas. .

[48] 1993. . Etniay Sociedad . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[49] 1991. . Contra‐puento cubano del tobacco y el azúcar . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. .

[50] 1992. . Los cabildos y la fiesta afrocubanos del Día de Reyes . , Havana : : Editorial de Ciendas Sociales. .

[51] Pedro Díaz Alberto. . 1998. . “‘Para iniciarse en la sodedad ‘Abakua’. ”. In Estudios Afro‐Cubanos . , Edited by: Menéndez Lázara. . Vol. Vol. 2. , p. 129––139. . Fundacion Fernando Ortiz. .

[52] Péiez de la Riva Juan. . 2000. . ‘El culí en el medio económico y social cubano’. . Catauro. Revista CubanadeAntropología . , : 74––102. .

[53] Pérez Roque Felipe. . 2002. . ‘Discurso pro‐nunciado por Felipe Pérez Roque, Ministro de la Relaciones Exteriores de Cuba, en la tribuna Abierta de la Revolución, en la Plaza de África en Alamar, el 6 de abril de 2002. . Granma . , 8 April, 2002;

[54] Quiñones Tato. . 1994. . Ecorie Abakuá . , Havana : : Ediciones Unión. .

[55] Simmons D. . 1956. . “‘An Ethnographic Sketch of the Efik People’. ”. In Efik Traders of Old Calabar . , Edited by: Forde Daryll. . p. 1––26. . Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[56] Sosa Rodríguez Enrique. . 1982. . Los Ñañigos . , Havana : : Ediciones Casa de las Américas. .

[57] 2001. . ‘Ñañigos en Key West (18807–1923?)’. . La Jiribilla . , July;

[58] Talbot P Amaury. . 1926. . Peoples of Southern Nigeria . , Vol. Vols. 1 and 3. , Oxford : : Oxford University Press. .

[59] 1967. . Life in Southern Nigeria: The Magic, Beliefs and Customs of the Ibibio Tribe . , London : : Frank Cass. .